At the turn of the 21st century, the electricity system started to transform. Regulators opened up electric generation to competition and renewable electricity, particularly wind and solar, entered a period of rapid cost decline (Borenstein and Bushnell, 2015). At the same time the popularity of distributed, rather than centralized, supply of electricity grew, giving end consumers new options to meet their electricity demand locally. The dramatic cost decline of solar technologies made it more economic to install solar generators at individual households (Barbose et al., 2021a), and technological development of battery storage has led to even more options for the local supply and control of electricity by the residential sector (Kittner et al., 2017; Barbose et al., 2021b).
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